Procedure
La frozen embryo transfer (TEC) represents an advanced assisted reproduction technique that uses previously cryopreserved embryos. This procedure forms an integral part of the fertility treatments modern, offering flexibility and multiple opportunities to achieve a pregnancy.
During a TEC, embryos that were frozen in a previous cycle of in vitro fertilization (IVF) are carefully thawed and transferred to the patient's uterus. The process of embryonic cryopreservation uses advanced techniques such as vitrification, which allows embryos to be preserved at extremely low temperatures without the formation of ice crystals that could damage them.
The procedure begins with preparing the endometrium (uterine lining) to receive the embryo. This can be done through a natural cycle, where a woman's spontaneous ovulation is monitored, or more commonly, through a programmed cycle with exogenous hormones to achieve optimal endometrial thickness and receptivity.
The transfer itself is an outpatient procedure that usually does not require anesthesia. The reproductive specialist uses a thin, ultrasound-guided cannula to place the thawed embryo in the uterine cavity. The entire process usually takes less than 30 minutes, and many patients can resume normal activities almost immediately.
According to data from the Spanish Fertility Society, embryo survival rates after thawing exceed 95% when using the vitrification technique, reflecting the effectiveness of current methods of preservation of fertility.
How does the uterus prepare for a frozen embryo transfer?
Adequate endometrial preparation is critical to the success of ECT. Specialists can recommend different protocols depending on the individual characteristics of each patient. In a natural cycle, spontaneous ovulation is monitored using ultrasound and blood tests to schedule the transfer at the optimal time. Instead, the substituted or scheduled cycle involves the administration of estrogen and progesterone to simulate a natural cycle and prepare the endometrium in a controlled manner.
The main objective is to achieve an endometrial thickness of 7-12 mm with a trilaminar pattern, considered optimal for implantation. During this preparatory phase, transvaginal ultrasound is performed to verify the endometrial response to hormonal treatment and adjust medication if necessary.
How long does the process take from defrosting to transfer?
The process from the thawing of the embryo to its transfer is relatively brief. The defrosting takes place the same day of the transfer and requires approximately 20-30 minutes to complete. Embryologists use special solutions to carefully reverse the freezing process and evaluate the viability of the embryo before transfer.
Once thawed, the embryo is kept under controlled conditions in the laboratory for a short period while the patient is being prepared. The total time from thawing to transfer rarely exceeds 2-3 hours, thus minimizing the time the embryo spends outside the controlled environment.
What exactly happens during an embryo transfer?
During the transfer, the patient is placed in a gynecological position, similar to a routine pelvic exam. The doctor inserts a speculum to view the cervix and cleans it carefully. Using an abdominal ultrasound as a visual guide, the specialist inserts a thin flexible cannula through the cervix.
The embryo, suspended in a small volume of culture medium, is loaded into the cannula and gently deposited in the uterine cavity. This procedure is painless for most patients, although some may experience mild discomfort similar to a menstrual cramp.
The precise location of the embryo placement is crucial. Recent studies suggest that transfer in the upper third of the uterine cavity, 1-2 cm from the uterine fundus, is associated with better implantation rates.
Is there any special preparation required before the day of the transfer?
Before the transfer, it is recommended to keep a adequate hydration to facilitate ultrasound visualization of the uterus. It is advisable to go with a moderately full bladder, as this helps to optimize the ultrasound image during the procedure.
It is suggested to avoid the use of perfumes, lotions or strong colognes on the day of the procedure, to strictly follow the hormonal medication prescribed for endometrial preparation and to consider reducing intense physical activities in the previous days.
In specific cases where there are risk factors for coagulation problems or previous implantation failures, specialists may recommend additional medications such as low-dose aspirin or low molecular weight heparin.
Benefits
The transfer of frozen embryos offers numerous advantages within the panorama of assisted reproduction techniques. This modality has gained significant popularity due to its clinical results and the flexibility it provides to patients and doctors.
A key benefit is the reduction of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome (SHO), a potentially serious complication of fertility treatments. By temporarily separating ovarian stimulation from embryo transfer, a woman's body is allowed to fully recover before attempting a pregnancy. The American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM) has indicated that this strategy has helped to significantly reduce the incidence of severe OHS.
The TEC also offers the opportunity to perform preimplantation genetic testing in embryos before their transfer. This allows the selection of embryos without specific chromosomal abnormalities, increasing the chances of a healthy pregnancy, especially for couples with a history of genetic problems.
Frozen embryo transfer cycles are often less physically and emotionally stressful than fresh embryo transfer cycles. They require less medication, fewer visits to the center Fertility and allow for better programming, adapted to the work and personal needs of patients.
Constant improvement in cryopreservation techniques, especially vitrification, has led to embryo survival rates greater than 95%, according to data published by the European Association for Human Reproduction and Embryology (ESHRE).
Why is the transfer of frozen embryos sometimes preferred over the transfer of fresh embryos?
There are a variety of medical reasons why specialists may recommend a frozen embryo transfer rather than a fresh one. The presence of elevated hormone levels after ovarian stimulation can negatively affect endometrial receptivity, while ECT allows these levels to return to normal before transfer.
When there is a risk of ovarian hyperstimulation syndrome, freezing all embryos (“freeze-all” strategy) is an effective preventive strategy that significantly reduces complications. In addition, TEC facilitates genetic studies such as pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) or pre-implantation genetic screening (PGS).
In cases where the endometrium does not reach optimal conditions during the stimulation cycle, ECT allows it to be properly prepared for a subsequent cycle, optimizing the conditions for implantation. Recent studies suggest that, in certain patient populations, pregnancy rates with frozen embryo transfers may be even higher than those with fresh cycles.
What are the benefits of preserving embryos for future use?
La freezing of embryos for later use offers multiple advantages for family planning. This preservation allows couples to plan their family over time, making it easier to schedule pregnancies according to their personal, professional or medical circumstances.
This option is especially valuable for patients facing medical treatments that may affect their fertility, such as chemotherapy or radiation therapy. Cryopreserved embryos maintain their viability for years, even decades, providing multiple opportunities to achieve pregnancies with a single cycle of ovarian stimulation, significantly reducing medical costs and the physical and emotional impact associated with repeated cycles of IVF.
How does cryopreservation affect embryo quality?
Modern cryopreservation techniques have revolutionized the ability to maintain embryo quality during the freezing and thawing process. Vitrification, which uses high concentrations of cryoprotectors and ultrafast cooling rates, has largely replaced traditional slow freezing methods with markedly superior results.
Current studies show that properly vitrified embryos maintain survival rates greater than 95% and preserve their implantation potential. Cell structure, metabolic activity and development capacity do not show significant differences compared to fresh embryos when optimized protocols are used.
Advances in culture and cryoprotective media have minimized osmotic stress and the formation of ice crystals, which historically represented the main causes of cell damage during cryopreservation. As a result, pregnancy rates with frozen embryos have increased considerably over the past decade.
Is there a difference in perinatal outcomes between fresh and frozen embryo pregnancies?
Recent scientific evidence suggests some interesting differences in perinatal outcomes between pregnancies from fresh and frozen embryos. Several large scale cohort studies have reported that babies born from frozen embryo transfers tend to have a slightly higher birth weight and lower incidence of low birth weight compared to fresh transfers.
The incidence of preterm delivery also appears to be lower in pregnancies resulting from frozen embryos. However, some studies have indicated a small increase in the risk of hypertensive disorders during pregnancy, although the clinical significance of this observation remains under investigation.
In terms of general neonatal health, birth defects and long-term neurological development, no significant differences have been found between children conceived through the transfer of fresh or frozen embryos.
Success
Las success rates of frozen embryo transfer have undergone significant improvements in recent decades, currently positioning themselves as an alternative comparable to or even superior to fresh embryo transfers in certain clinical settings.
According to recent data from the European Society for Human Reproduction and Embryology (ESHRE), clinical pregnancy rates due to frozen embryo transfer range from 35% to 50%, depending on various factors such as the patient's age at the time of cryopreservation, embryo quality and the endometrial preparation protocol used.
A multicenter study published in the journal Fertility and Sterility demonstrated that, in patients with good ovarian response, the strategy of freezing all embryos for subsequent transfer resulted in live birth rates of 52.9%, compared to 47.3% in fresh transfers. This difference is mainly attributed to better synchronization between the embryo and the endometrium in freezing cycles.
Maternal age at the time of oocyte cryopreservation represents the most important prognostic factor. Success rates decline progressively after age 35, with a steeper decline after age 40. For this reason, many specialists recommend considering preserving fertility at earlier stages when possible.
It is important to highlight that current vitrification techniques have dramatically improved post-thawing embryo survival, reaching rates greater than 95% in centers with experience in assisted reproduction treatments.
What factors influence the success rates of a frozen embryo transfer?
Multiple factors determine the success of a frozen embryo transfer. La embryonic quality before freezing, it is a fundamental predictor of implantation potential, with embryos developing optimally and minimally fragmenting and presenting better survival and pregnancy rates.
La endometrial receptivity plays a crucial role in the process. An endometrium with adequate thickness (generally between 7-12 mm) and a trilaminar pattern is associated with better results. New technologies such as the endometrial receptivity test (ERA) make it possible to customize the optimal time for transfer according to the individual characteristics of each patient.
La transfer technique used by the specialist significantly influences the results. Atraumatic transfers, without bleeding, with accurate embryo placement and minimal catheter manipulation are correlated with higher implantation rates.
Other determining factors include maternal age at the time of cryopreservation, the quality of the embryology laboratory and the presence of certain uterine pathologies such as polyps, fibroids or adhesions that may compromise implantation.
How do success rates compare between different age groups?
The impact of age on the outcomes of frozen embryo transfers is significant and well-documented. In women under 35 years of age, live-birth rates by transfer are usually between 40-50%, representing the group with the best reproductive prognosis.
For the 35-37 age group, the rates drop slightly, to approximately 35-45%. In women aged 38-40, a more notable reduction is seen, with success rates between 25-35%.
For women over 40 years of age, live-birth rates by transfer are progressively decreasing, falling below 20% after age 42 and approaching 5-10% in women aged 44 and over.
It is important to note that these statistics reflect age at the time of cryopreservation, not at the time of transfer, which underlines the importance of preservation of fertility early when a delay in the search for pregnancy is foreseeable.
How many frozen embryo transfers are usually necessary to achieve a pregnancy?
Most pregnancies that culminate in live births are achieved within the first three transfers of frozen embryos, although this varies significantly depending on individual factors. Approximately 50-60% of patients achieve pregnancy on the first attempt, especially those with favorable prognostic factors.
An additional 25-30% of patients become pregnant on the second attempt. After three failed transfers, cumulative success rates are between 70-80% for patients under 35 with good quality embryos.
When three unsuccessful transfers have been performed, a complete reevaluation of the case is generally recommended to identify possible factors of recurrent implantation failure, such as uterine anomalies, immunological alterations or previously undetected embryonic genetic problems.
What recent advances have improved success rates?
Technological and clinical advances have revolutionized the results of frozen embryo transfers in the last decade. La vitrification has replaced traditional slow freezing, dramatically reducing cell damage and increasing post-thaw embryo survival rates above 95%.
El blastocyst culture makes it possible to select embryos with greater implantation potential, since only those with optimal development reach this advanced stage. Las embryonic selection techniques such as time-lapse monitoring, which allows us to observe complete embryonic development through sequential photographs, have improved the ability to identify embryos with the greatest potential.
Preimplantation genetic diagnosis (PGT-A) allows the selective transfer of euploid embryos (with normal chromosome number), significantly reducing spontaneous abortion rates and increasing the chances of pregnancy by transfer. Advances in understanding the implantation window using techniques such as the endometrial receptivity test (ERA) make it possible to customize the optimal time for embryo transfer.
Preparation
The right one preparing for a frozen embryo transfer is essential to optimize the chances of success. This process involves both medical and personal aspects that must be meticulously addressed.
The process begins with a full assessment of the patient's health status. This includes blood tests to check hormone levels, thyroid function tests, and evaluation of ovarian reserve by measuring anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH). There is also a AMH test to evaluate ovarian reserve and determine the potential response to hormonal stimulation.
The preparation of the endometrium is a critical element. Depending on the protocol chosen, you can choose a natural cycle monitoring spontaneous ovulation, or more frequently, a cycle replaced with estrogen administration to develop the endometrium and then progesterone to simulate the luteal phase. The objective is to achieve an optimal endometrial thickness (7-12 mm) with a trilaminar pattern that favors implantation.
Some patients require additional procedures prior to the transfer, such as hysteroscopy to evaluate and treat possible uterine anomalies, or endometrial biopsy for receptivity analysis. These procedures are strategically programmed to not interfere with the transfer cycle.
It is advisable to maintain a healthy lifestyle for the weeks leading up to the transfer. This includes a balanced diet rich in antioxidants, adequate hydration, avoiding alcohol and smoking, and moderate physical activity. Managing stress through relaxation techniques can also contribute positively.
What medical evaluations are performed before scheduling a transfer?
Before a frozen embryo transfer is scheduled, several evaluations are performed to optimize conditions. A full uterine evaluation using transvaginal ultrasound and, in selected cases, hysteroscopy or hysterosonography to rule out pathologies such as polyps, submucosal fibroids or malformations that may interfere with implantation.
They are also performed cervicovaginal cultures to rule out infections that could compromise the outcome. Some clinics also include screening for potentially pathogenic bacteria such as ureaplasma or mycoplasma.
Los hormonal profiles allow us to evaluate thyroid function (TSH, T4), prolactin level and ovarian reserve (FSH, estradiol, AMH). It is recommended to normalize TSH values below 2.5 mIU/L to optimize implantation conditions.
In patients with a history of implantation failure or recurrent pregnancy loss, a immunological study and thrombophilia to identify factors that may require specific treatment.
What medications are used to prepare the endometrium?
Endometrial preparation generally includes several medications depending on the protocol chosen. In replaced or programmed cycles, they are administered estrogens (estradiol) orally, transdermally, or vaginally for approximately 12-14 days to stimulate endometrial growth. The doses are adjusted according to the response seen on follow-up ultrasound.
La progesterone is subsequently introduced to induce secretory changes in the endometrium, simulating the luteal phase of the natural cycle. It can be administered vaginally (eggs or gel), intramuscularly or subcutaneously, usually starting 5-6 days before the transfer of a blastocyst.
In some specific protocols, they are used GnRH agonists previously to suppress spontaneous ovulation and allow for more precise cycle control. For patients with immunological problems or a history of gestational loss, additional medications may be added such as low-dose aspirin, low molecular weight heparin or immunomodulatory treatments according to specific medical indications.
What lifestyle changes are recommended before the transfer?
Optimizing certain aspects of the lifestyle can contribute positively to the outcome. Maintain a healthy weight is important, as both underweight and obesity can negatively affect success rates. It is recommended to try to achieve a BMI between 19-25 kg/m² when possible.
La balanced nutrition rich in antioxidants, folic acid and omega-3 fatty acids can create a more favorable environment for implantation. Foods such as fruits, vegetables, fish, nuts and olive oil are recommended.
It is due completely avoid the consumption of alcohol and tobacco, ideally from at least three months before the transfer. Scientific evidence demonstrates its negative impact on reproductive outcomes.
El moderate exercise such as walking, gentle swimming or adapted yoga is beneficial, but it is recommended to avoid high-intensity activities or contact sports in the weeks before the transfer.
How do you determine the optimal time to make the transfer?
Determining the ideal time for the transfer is crucial and depends on the type of protocol used. In natural cycles, ovulation is monitored using urine or blood LH tests and serial ultrasound. The transfer of an embryo at the blastocyst stage (day 5-6) is scheduled approximately 5-6 days after the detected ovulation.
In replaced cycles, the synchronization is performed by calculating the days of exposure to progesterone. Blastocysts are usually transferred after 5-6 days of progesterone, while cell-stage embryos (day 2-3) require 3-4 days of progesterone.
Las endometrial receptivity tests such as the ERA (Endometrial Receptivity Array) test can be used in patients with previous implantation failures to detect displacements in the implantation window and customize the exact time of the transfer.
Factors such as the stage of embryonic development at the time of freezing, the embryonic quality and specific characteristics of the patient influence the decision of the optimal time for the transfer.
Risks
Every medical procedure involves certain potential risks, and the transfer of frozen embryos is no exception. However, it is important to contextualize that this is a procedure considered safe, with extremely rare serious complications.
Immediate physical complications associated with the transfer are rare. The risk of post-procedure pelvic infection is less than 1%, according to data from the European assisted reproduction registry. This risk is minimized by strict aseptic techniques and prior evaluation for genital tract infections. In very rare cases, uterine perforation may occur during the procedure, with an estimated incidence of less than 1 per 1,000 transfers.
The hormonal stimulation used to prepare the endometrium may cause side effects in some patients, such as headache, nausea, breast tenderness, or mood changes. These symptoms are usually mild and self-limiting. In very rare cases, estrogen administration may be associated with thromboembolic events, particularly in women with pre-existing risk factors such as thrombophilia or smoking.
One aspect to consider is the risk of multiple pregnancy, directly related to the number of embryos transferred. The American Society for Reproductive Medicine (ASRM) recommends limiting the number of embryos transferred, favoring the elective transfer of a single embryo (ESet) to minimize this risk, especially in young women with good quality embryos.
Current scientific evidence shows no increase in the incidence of congenital anomalies in children conceived through frozen embryo transfer compared to the general population or fresh embryo transfers, according to an extensive meta-analysis published in the journal Fertility and Sterility.
Are there specific risks associated with the freezing and thawing process?
The risks directly related to embryo cryopreservation are limited. The main technical risk is the possibility that the embryos will not survive the thawing process. However, with current vitrification techniques, embryo survival rates exceed 95% in centers with experience in assisted reproduction.
There is theoretical concern about the possible impact of prolonged cryopreservation on embryo quality. However, studies that have evaluated embryos stored for more than 10 years have not demonstrated a significant reduction in pregnancy rates or an increase in congenital anomalies.
Current cryopreservation protocols include rigorous identification and traceability systems to prevent errors in the assignment of embryos, although these events are extremely rare (estimated at less than 1 per 50,000 procedures).
What complications can arise during or after the transfer?
Some complications may occur during or after the procedure, although they are rare. Approximately 5% of patients experience mild uterine cramps after the transfer, which usually resolve spontaneously within a few hours. The use of mild pain relievers such as paracetamol is usually sufficient to control these complaints.
El mild vaginal bleeding can occur in 3-5% of cases, usually due to minor trauma to the cervix during manipulation. It rarely requires intervention and does not negatively affect implantation rates when it is scarce.
In less than 1% of cases it can occur difficult embryo transfer due to cervical stenosis or pronounced uterine angulations, requiring additional instrumentation or special transfer techniques.
La vasovagal reaction (dizziness, sweating, bradycardia) may occasionally occur during the procedure, especially in anxious patients or with a previous history of these reactions.
The risk of ectopic pregnancy after a frozen embryo transfer, it is approximately 1-2%, similar to or slightly lower than that observed in fresh transfers. This risk is increased in women with a history of pelvic inflammatory disease, previous tubal surgery, or previous ectopic pregnancy.
What obstetric risks can be associated with pregnancies achieved through ECT?
Pregnancies achieved through the transfer of frozen embryos have some peculiarities in terms of obstetric risks. Recent studies have identified a slight increase in the incidence of hypertensive disorders during pregnancy, including preeclampsia, in pregnancies resulting from frozen embryo transfers compared to spontaneous pregnancies or fresh transfers. The exact mechanism is not fully understood, although it is proposed that it could be related to the absence of the corpus luteum in replaced cycles.
The risk of placenta previa there has been a slight increase in pregnancies due to assisted reproduction techniques in general, including frozen embryo transfers, with an estimated incidence of 1.5-2% compared to 0.5% in the general population.
On the other hand, pregnancies resulting from frozen embryo transfers have a lower risk of low birth weight And prematurity when compared to fresh transfers, which constitutes a significant advantage from a perinatal point of view.
There has been no demonstrated increase in the incidence of congenital anomalies specifically associated with the transfer of frozen embryos above what is observed in the general population or in other assisted reproduction techniques.
Are there emotional or psychological risks associated with the procedure?
The psychological aspects during assisted reproduction treatment deserve special attention. La Anxiety associated with waiting for results after the transfer (commonly referred to as “two-week wait”) represents a significant emotional challenge for many patients. This anxiety can manifest as excessive worry, sleep disturbances, or difficulty focusing on everyday activities.
The possibility of a negative outcome can lead to feelings of Duel And Frustration, especially in couples with previous failed attempts or prolonged infertility trajectories.
Hormonal fluctuations associated with the medication used in endometrial preparation may intensify mood changes and emotional lability in some patients.
It is advisable to consider professional psychological support during the process, whether through individual consultations, couples therapy or support groups. Numerous studies have shown that psychological interventions can significantly improve quality of life during fertility treatments.
Alternatives
When the frozen embryo transfer is not possible or has not been successful after several attempts, there are several therapeutic alternatives available. It's important for patients to be aware of these options to make informed decisions based on their particular circumstances.
La in vitro fertilization with fresh transfer constitutes the most direct alternative to TEC. In this procedure, embryos are transferred to the uterus in the same cycle in which ovarian stimulation and oocyte retrieval are performed. This option eliminates the need for cryopreservation, but may have disadvantages in cases of risk of ovarian hyperstimulation or when pre-implantation genetic diagnosis is required.
La artificial insemination represents a less invasive alternative for couples with certain specific indications such as cervical factor, treated ovulatory dysfunction or infertility of unknown cause. It consists of depositing trained sperm directly in the uterine cavity during the ovulatory period. Its success rates are generally lower than those of IVF/TEC, but the procedure is less complex and costly.
For couples facing severe male factor, the intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) can be used in combination with fresh IVF or TEC. This technique involves the direct injection of a sperm cell into the cytoplasm of the ovum and is indicated in cases of severe oligozoospermia, asthenozoospermia or other sperm freezing.
In situations where it is not possible to use your own gametes, the options of egg donation, sperm donation or embryo donation may be viable alternatives. These modalities have excellent success rates, particularly egg donation, which shows results even superior to those of IVF with their own eggs in older women.
When is fresh transfer preferable to embryo freezing?
There are clinical scenarios where fresh transfer may be the preferred option. In patients with low ovarian reserve who obtain a very limited number of embryos (1-2), some specialists prefer fresh transfer to avoid the additional risk associated with the freeze-thaw process, although this preference is being questioned with the high survival rates of current vitrification.
When it exists procreative urgency for medical reasons, such as cancer patients who need to start gonadotoxic treatments immediately after ovarian stimulation, fresh transfer may be more appropriate for reasons of time.
In centers with limited experience in vitrification techniques (increasingly rare), where post-thawing embryo survival rates may be suboptimal, fresh transfer may provide better results.
For elderly patients with a committed reproductive prognosis, where maximizing every opportunity is a priority, fresh transfer has traditionally been preferred, although this preference is being reevaluated in the light of current good results with vitrified embryos.
What options are there when one's own embryos are not viable?
When the use of own embryos is not possible or has an unfavorable prognosis, there are several alternatives. La reception of donor eggs It is an option with excellent results for women with premature ovarian failure, advanced reproductive age, carriers of genetic disorders or after multiple IVF failures with their own eggs. Success rates with this technique usually exceed 50% per transfer.
The reception of donor sperm is indicated in cases of non-obstructive azoospermia where sperm cannot be recovered, paternally transmitted genetic disorders or for women without a male partner. It can be used both for artificial insemination and for IVF/ICSI as the case may be.
Receiving donated embryos offers an alternative for couples where both members have alterations in their gametes. These embryos usually come from other couples who have completed their reproductive project and donate their leftover embryos.
La surrogacy may be considered in cases of absence or uterine anomalies that make pregnancy impossible, although this option is subject to important legal considerations that vary significantly between different countries and jurisdictions.
What options are there for patients with recurrent implantation failure?
For patients who have experienced multiple implantation failures (generally defined as ≥3 failed transfers with good quality embryos), there are specific approaches. El preimplantation genetic diagnosis for aneuploidies (PGT-A) allows the selection of chromosomally normal embryos, which can improve implantation rates and reduce the risk of abortion in selected groups of patients, particularly those with advanced maternal age or recurrent miscarriages.
Las endometrial receptivity tests such as the ERA test, identify the optimal time for transfer by analyzing endometrial gene expression, customizing the exact time of transfer for each patient.
Different immune support modalities can be considered in selected cases with altered immune profiles, although the evidence on their efficacy is still the subject of scientific debate.
La surgical hysteroscopy can resolve subtle uterine anomalies not detected in conventional imaging studies, such as small polyps, adhesions or partial uterine septa that could interfere with implantation.
What special considerations apply to different patient profiles?
Reproductive strategies must be adapted to the specific characteristics of each patient. For female homosexual couples, there are options such as artificial insemination or IVF with donor sperm, as well as the possibility of shared embryonic reception (ROPA), where one woman provides the eggs and the other woman conceives the pregnancy.
For male homosexual couples, options include egg donation and surrogacy, with significant legal and ethical considerations depending on the jurisdiction.
Las transgender people may benefit from fertility preservation services before starting hormonal treatments or surgical procedures that affect their reproductive capacity, with subsequent options adapted to their specific situation.
La Solo motherhood by choice represents a growing profile of patients who can use artificial insemination, IVF or ECT with donor sperm depending on their particular circumstances.
References
- Roque, M., Valle, M., Guimarães, F., Sampaio, M., & Geber, S. (2023). Freeze-all policy: Fresh vs. frozen-thawed embryo transfer. Fertility and Sterility, 107 (3), 663-670. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2022.11.006 Trusted Source.
- Chen, Z. J., Shi, Y., Sun, Y., Zhang, B., Liang, X., Cao, Y., Yang, J., Liu, J., Wei, D., Weng, N., Tian, L., Hao, C., Yang, D., Zhou, F., Shi, J., Xu, Y., Li, J., Yan, J., Qin, Y., & Zhao, H. (2022). Fresh versus frozen embryos for infertility in the polycystic ovary syndrome. New England Journal of Medicine, 375 (6), 523-533. https://doi.org/10.1056/NEJMoa1513873 Trusted Source.
- Maheshwari, A., Pandey, S., Shetty, A., Hamilton, M., & Bhattacharya, S. (2023). Obstetric and perinatal outcomes after either fresh or thawed frozen embryo transfer: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Fertility and Sterility, 109 (2), 333-344. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.fertnstert.2022.12.032 Trusted Source.
